Introduced Insects

Daniel Simberloff , in Encyclopedia of Insects (2nd Edition), 2009

Numbers

Introduced species often incorporate a substantial fraction of a regional entomofauna. For example, Great Britain has ca. 21,000 native insects and ca. 200 established, introduced ones (comprising ca. 1% of the total). Israel has ca. 15,000 native species and 220 introduced ones (ca. 1.v% of the total). For the contiguous The states, ca. 84,000 native species have been identified, as accept 1862 introduced species (ca. two% of the full). Florida has relatively more than introduced species: 11,509 native and 993 introduced (viii%). For oceanic islands, the introduced proportion tin be much greater. Thus, the Hawaiian Islands take ca. 5400 native insects and 2600 introduced ones (32% introduced), whereas the mid-Atlantic island Tristan da Cunha has 84 native insects and 32 introduced ones (28% introduced). The greater proportions of introduced species on islands probably event more from the mathematics of smaller numbers of native species and relatively larger numbers of attempted introductions than from some inherent invasibility of island communities or stronger "biotic resistance" of continental ones.

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Introduced Species, Impacts and Distribution of

Daniel Simberloff , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (2d Edition), 2013

Abstract

Introduced species are numerous and have increased with globalization. All regions undergo invasions, merely islands have suffered unduly. The greatest touch is habitat modification: vegetation grazed by introduced animals or overgrown by introduced plants, and changed fire, hydrological, and food regimes. Invaders outcompete, consume, and infect natives, and hybridize with them. Invaders sometimes act indirectly, and they can exacerbate one another's impacts. Frequently impacts are delayed. Some delays end because of environmental changes. Introduced species evolve in their new environments, and this can exacerbate impacts. In some cases, newly introduced genotypes tin cause a harmless species to get invasive.

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Introduced Species, Effects and Distribution of

Daniel Simberloff , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001

III.F. Hybridization and Introgression

Introduced species tin eliminate native species past mating with them, a peculiarly potent threat when the native species is not as numerous equally the introduced ane. Both the New Zealand grey duck ( Anas superciliosa superciliosa) and the Hawaiian duck (A. wyvilliana) are thus threatened by extensive hybridization and introgression with the North American mallard (A. platyrhynchos), introduced as a game bird. Similarly, the white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala), now restricted in Europe to Spain, is threatened there by hybridization and introgression with North American ruddy ducks (O. jamaicensis), which were introduced to Swell Uk every bit an assiduities, escaped, and eventually reached Spain.

Both plants and animals are threatened by such introgression, and its extent is just becoming known with the all-encompassing employ of molecular techniques that can find it. This trouble is much more than common in regions that exchange closely related species, such as Europe and North America, than in those with species and then distantly related that they are unlikely to be able to mate and exchange genes, such as Australia and either Europe or North America. Exchange of genes is not even necessary for hybridization with an introduced species to affect a native species inimically. Many females of the endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) hybridize with male introduced American mink (M. vison), which become sexually mature earlier than the male European mink. The embryos are all aborted, only the loss of reproduction by the European mink exacerbates their population refuse.

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Disease Take chances to Endemic Animals From Introduced Species on Madagascar

Fidisoa Rasambainarivo , Steven G. Goodman , in Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume nine, 2019

Conclusions

Introduced species are an increasingly ascendant part of many natural and homo-modified landscapes. It is estimated that invasive species, peculiarly invasive mammal predators such as dogs and cats, have caused the extinction of at least 87 species of birds, 45 species of mammals, and ten species of reptiles and that they are threatening many more. 70 Some of these extinctions may exist mediated by the introduction of pathogens. 71 On Madagascar, several of the "worst invasive species" were introduced following homo colonization. 72 Their impacts, including those of associated pathogens, on the fauna of Republic of madagascar warrant farther inquiry and monitoring. It is hoped that the data generated from such research will ultimately pave the way to successful strategies for managing the risks of "pathogen pollution" and affliction spillover to the native fauna of Madagascar.

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Modernistic Examples of Extinctions

Gábor L. Lövei , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2013

Introductions equally a Threat to Species

Introduced species take ofttimes been implicated in the extinction of native species. Many introduced species, yet, take had no detectable result on species in their new environments. The massive spread of organisms by humans to other areas of the globe may increase local diversity, only will consequence in big losses in global biodiversity. To understand the danger that pan-mixing of the Earth's fauna and flora signify, let u.s.a. consider a thought experiment in isle biogeography. Species richness on an island is largely determined by its area: the larger the area, the more species the island contains. The same applies for continents. For example, mammal species richness is related to the size of the individual continents. The resulting correlation allows united states of america to extrapolate the global species richness. A supercontinent, with an area equal to the total dry state on Earth would support about 2000 mammal species. Currently, there are about 4200 mammal species. Therefore geographical isolation allowed evolution to generate nearly twice the biodiversity that could otherwise, on the basis of habitat area alone, be expected. As today human-assisted invasion is becoming a more and more than prevalent biogeographic miracle, the individual continents are more and more like one supercontinent. Information technology is not surprising that more than extinctions are predicted, with maybe catastrophic consequences for biodiversity.

Often there is more than than 1 crusade of extinctions. For instance, the kokako (Callaeas cinerea), an endemic wattlebird in New Zealand became extinct in near of its sometime distribution range (and is on the brink of global extinction) due to a combination of factors. These include the wrinkle and fragmentation of its original woods habitat plus the effects of introduced predators, mainly the European stoat (Mustela erminea) and the Australian brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula).

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Economical Aspects of Freshwater Invertebrates

Vincent H. Resh , David M. Rosenberg , in Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates (Fourth Edition), 2015

Damages

Introduced or invasive species can act as "ecosystem engineers" in their new habitats, causing gross changes in ecosystem states. For example, the introduction of golden apple snails to Thailand resulted in wetlands previously dominated by macrophytes becoming dominated by phytoplankton (Evans and Strong, 2011), and threatened local wetland plant communities and rice crops (see in a higher place). Later consuming macrophytes, the snails excreted previously unavailable phosphorus nutrients to the h2o, which created increases in eutrophic conditions. The increment in nutrients and decreases in calorie-free penetration, with the latter caused past reduced shading past macrophytes, allowed phytoplankton to become the dominant master producer in the ecosystem. Moreover, these ecosystem-level changes disrupted interactions among native species.

Introduced snails tin can also seriously affect native biota. For example, P. canaliculata and P. insularum have been implicated in the decline of native freshwater snail species in Southeast Asia and Florida (Cowie, 2011). Other ampullarids take had the same effect in the Caribbean area islands. In Due north America, the New Zealand mud snail, P. antipodarum, is outcompeting native stream snails.

In Florida, the introduced ampullarid One thousand. cornuarietis dramatically reduces freshwater plants, destroying habitat for native animals associated with these plants (Cowie, 2011). In the Caribbean, M. cornuarietis and Pomacea glauca, introduced to control water lettuce, may also accept afflicted native vegetation.

Procambarus clarkii had similar ecosystem-engineering science effects equally P. canaliculata on wetlands in Europe (Zedler, 2011). By grazing and shredding macrophytes, this crayfish removes plants, increases turbidity, and converts marshes into open water. The energy base consequently shifts to phytoplankton, filamentous algae, and detritus. The crayfish O. rusticus can, in some Northward American lakes to which it has spread, directly or indirectly reduce affluence and species diversity of macrophytes through herbivory, destruction, or increased turbidity (MacIsaac, 2011). These two species of crayfish take also had negative furnishings on other invertebrate and vertebrate taxa (MacIsaac, 2011; Zedler, 2011). P. leniusculus, from Due north America, preys on the immature of the European crayfish A. astacus, which is one of the reasons for the reduction of native species where the nonnative species is institute (Bartley, 2011).

In contrast, the zebra and quagga mussels D. polymorpha and D. bugensis cause system-wide increases in water clarity and lite penetration, leading to reduced phytoplankton offshore and increased growth of macrophytes inshore, i.e., a shift from planktonic to benthonic processes (Johnson, 2011; Mills and Holeck, 2011). In their role as ecosystem engineers, these dreissenids also caused considerable declines in abundances of the burrowing amphipod Diporeia in the lower Great Lakes (Mills and Holeck, 2011). Prior to the invasion, Diporeia equanimous sixty–eighty% of the benthic biomass in these lakes and was a disquisitional nutrient for lake whitefish, Coregonus clupeaformis. The loss of Diporeia has implications for the capacity of the Keen Lakes to back up fish populations that depend on this food resource, and for how free energy will flow to these fish. For case, crustacean zooplankton affluence in Lake Huron declined sharply because of the focusing of predators on the remaining zooplankton (MacIsaac, 2011). Four other species of fish also steeply declined in Lake Michigan since 1999 (MacIsaac, 2011), and dreissenid invasion of the Bang-up Lakes also decimated many species of native unionid mussels (Johnson, 2011; MacIsaac, 2011; Mills and Holeck, 2011; Primack, 2011).

Other species of introduced or invasive species of aquatic invertebrates take too caused dramatic ecological furnishings. For example, because the invasive zooplankters Bythotrephes longimanus (the spiny h2o flea) and Cercopagis pengoi (the fishhook water flea) have long tail spines that brand them unpalatable to planktivorous fish, they escape substantial predation (Ricciardi, 2011). Also, Bythotrephes reduced abundance and species richness of zooplankton in several European and North American lakes (Ricciardi, 2011) and changed the food web in the Bully Lakes by direct predation on other zooplankton, thus affecting sport and commercial angling (MacIsaac, 2011). Cercopagis is suspected of causing the turn down of dominant species of zooplankton in Lake Ontario (Ricciardi, 2011).

Mysis diluviana (the opposum shrimp, formerly K. relicta) was introduced into Flathead Lake, Montana, and Kootenay Lake, British Columbia, to enhance kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) product (MacIsaac, 2011; Ricciardi, 2011). These introductions, yet, produced the opposite effect (encounter Chapter 5 for details). Introductions of mysids into other lakes have too acquired a variety of ecological problems: (1) severe reductions in zooplankton; (two) enhanced bioaccumulation of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls; (iii) increased parasitism of fishes by nematodes, cestodes, and acanthocephalans; and (4) declines in growth, abundance, and productivity of pelagic fishes (Ricciardi, 2011).

In conclusion, introduced or invasive species can have economic benefits or produce economic damages. On balance, however, the prospect of short-term economic gain needs to be balanced confronting the possibility of major, long-term negative consequences from localized ecological changes, changes in ecosystem state, and the economic implications of these changes. In anticipating or rectifying problems that effect from introduced species, detailed life-history information on species that are candidates for introduction or for species that have already invaded an area in which they normally exercise not occur is a critical research need. It is also a need that will get increasingly important in the hereafter.

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Monitoring Avian Wellness in the Galápagos Islands: Current Knowledge

Luis R. Padilla , Patricia G. Parker , in Zoo and Wild Beast Medicine (Sixth Edition), 2008

Surveillance of Avian Pathogens in Domestic Chickens

Introduced species carry the risk of foreign pathogens being introduced into native isle populations. Several bird species have been purposefully introduced to the islands as farm animals: domestic chickens (Gallus gallus), domesticated turkeys (Meleagris spp.), guinea fowl (Numida meleagridis), and domestic ducks (Anas and Cairina spp.). Other bird species have been introduced by humans for purposes other than domestication, such as rock pigeons (Columba livia), and smoothen-billed anis (Crotophaga ani). In addition, domestic chicken production has increased in recent years in response to demand from a booming human population and growing tourist industry in the islands. five Galápagos police and quarantine regulations limit importation of domestic chickens to healthy birds originating from approved aviculture facilities in continental Ecuador, and vaccination is tightly regulated or prohibited. Chickens are present around human settlements on Santa Cruz, San Cristóbal, Isabela, and Floreana, and feral craven populations exist on some of these islands. 5

General surveillance of disease in chicken farms identified Newcastle disease (paramyxovirus type one, PMV-1), Mycoplasma gallisepticum, and proventicular parasites equally potential threats from chickens to endemic bird populations, five although boosted studies are currently nether manner to characterize the risk further based on type of farming performance and geographic location. In add-on, a big number of chickens showed seropositivity to infectious bursal disease, grouping-1 avian adenoviruses, Marek'due south disease, avian encephalomyelitis, and 2 strains of infectious bronchitis virus. In addition to affliction agents, some concern exists regarding the disposition of litter from production operations, which may significantly impact the health of local ecosystems.

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Threatened Holarctic Treefrogs, and Special Consideration on the Causes of Turn down of the Suweon Treefrog

Amaël Borzée , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2021

Introduced and invasive species

Introduced species have a negative impact at several levels. A worldwide threat is the American bullfrog ( L. catesbeianus), which predates on any animal that can fit its gape, including Hylids. Predation results in a loss of ecological space to predated species, while likewise modifying the beliefs of local species through competition for both larvae and adults. Another threat linked to the presence of this invasive species is the pathogens it carries (Yap et al., 2018), and L. catesbeianus is ofttimes carrying Batrachochytrids and Ranaviruses. Some other risk associated with invasive species is that species do not necessarily associate invasive species and threats. For instance, Eiffinger's treefrogs (Kurixalus eiffingeri) do not recognize the invasive slug (Parmarion martensi) and parents do not remove the invasive slugs feeding on eggs, despite removing a local slug species.

Hylids are impacted by a large number on invasive species, and generally larvae are sensitive to introduced fish. For instance, D. versicolor larvae abundance might be declining because of introduced Bluegill sunfish, H. arborea is sensitive to the presence of invasive fish such as goldfish (Carassius auratus) and H. meridionalis is under threat because of introduced predatory Louisiana Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and mosquitofishes (Gambusia holbrooki). Dryophytes japonicus is also impacted by the invasive Louisiana Crayfish (P. clarkii), which feeds on its eggs, and similarly to all hylids with conflicting L. catesbeianus on their range, the species is nether threat both because of the risk of predation and pathogen transmission.

Hylids can be invasive themselves. H. meridionalis, a native African species, is now nowadays in Europe. The species sometimes hybridize with H. arborea and H. molleri, resulting in individual with intermediate traits. In other regions, D. japonicus has been introduced to State of israel, and is also present on the range of D. suweonensis and D. flaviventris, resulting in hybridization and competition for resource.

In the Commonwealth of Korea, L. catesbeianus is known for preying on smaller amphibians and modifying the behavior of co-occurring species. In the case of D. suweonensis, the presence of L. catesbeianus resulted in the subtract in population size and extirpation of some populations. The presence of L. catesbeianus likewise correlates with a higher prevalence of the Chytrid mucus in D. suweonensis and D. japonicus (Borzée et al., 2017).

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Invasive Species, Development and

C.J.B. Sorte , in Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology, 2016

Evolutionary Characteristics of Invasive Species

Introduced species can be prone to founder events and population bottlenecks imposed past filters in the invasion pathway, leading to declines in genetic diversity inside nonnative populations every bit compared to their native, source populations. In a review of 80 species of animals, plants, and fungi, diversity of alleles and heterozygosity were significantly lower in introduced populations than in source populations, although decreases were less than 20% ( Dlugosch and Parker, 2008; also see Wares et al., 2005). Furthermore, Dlugosch and Parker (2008) establish a U-shaped relationship between genetic (allelic) diversity and time since first introduction, suggesting that option and genetic migrate proceed the loss of genetic diversity during the kickoff several decades later on colonization. Over longer fourth dimension scales, multiple introductions tin cause genetic variety to rise once more via the mechanisms discussed below. Thus, it is possibly not surprising that a lag phase often occurs between the colonization and spread stages in the invasion pathway (run across Crooks, 2005), in which population growth and subsequent spread are inhibited either direct past depression population sizes or by depression level of genetic variation within the populations.

Propagule pressure – or the total number of introduced individuals – is one of the best supported correlates of invasion success (Kolar and Lodge, 2001; Lockwood et al., 2005; Colautti et al., 2006) and can annul the effect of founder events on genetic diversity within introduced populations (Roman and Darling, 2007). Simberloff (2009) reviewed examples – from birds to ungulates – of cases where introductions failed until the number of introduced individuals exceeded a minimum threshold. Increased propagule pressure level is associated with increased population sizes and increased genetic diversity within populations (Simberloff, 2009). Furthermore, multiple introductions may pb to the formation of admixtures, new populations composed of individuals from previously separated source populations. Such introduced admixture populations can take equivalent (Dlugosch and Parker, 2008) or even increased levels of genetic diversity as compared to individual source populations (Kolbe et al., 2004; Gillis et al., 2009).

In addition to the invasion process influencing genetic diverseness, at that place is some prove that genetic diversity also influences invasion success. For example, genetic diversity has been linked to colonization ability in the found Arabidopsis thaliana (Crawford and Whitney, 2010) and productivity and clonal spread in a perennial grass (Lavergne and Molofsky, 2007). It is important to notation, however, that there are a number of counter-examples to the trends presented above. Successful invasions of a broad range of species – including a European solitary bee to Due north America and the N American muskrat to Europe – are idea to have derived from only ane to a few introduced individuals (come across Simberloff, 2009). In that location are likewise examples where invasion success was associated with decreases rather than increases in genetic diversity (e.g., Schmid-Hempel et al., 2007), specially when loss of genetic variation increased the frequency of a genotype that proved to be beneficial (e.g., increase population sizes) in the nonnative habitat (eastward.m., Tsutsui et al., 2000).

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Biological Command of Invasive Insect Pests

Mark G. Wright , in Integrated Pest Management, 2014

14.1 Introduction

Species introduced into new environments often become invasive, having deleterious effects on ethnic environments, human activities such equally agriculture, and homo health, as vectors of diseases. Invasive insect species produce many negative interactions in their new environments, condign pests of well-nigh all agricultural crops and attacking indigenous found species. Examples of invasive insect pests of agricultural crops are numerous. In many cases, insect pests have threatened entire agricultural industries, or have placed staple crops of subsistence communities in dire jeopardy. Insects that deed every bit vectors of plant pathogenic viruses are among the nigh severe pests in agronomics, and a number of these vectors accept been instrumental in severely restricting sure crop industries, such as Tomato plant spotted wilt virus on tomatoes in South Africa and Papaya ringspot virus on papaya in Hawaii. Many invasive insects are direct pests of crops, causing physical damage to plant products, reducing yields, and reducing quality of products (Effigy xiv.1). Export of agricultural products may besides be negatively impacted by insects such as fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae), that crusade phytosanitary concerns. Natural ecosystems are also impacted by invasive insect species, and Hawaii yields another skillful example, that of a gall-forming wasp (Quadrastichus erythrinae, Eulophidae; Erythrina gall wasp), that attacks an indigenous endemic coral tree, Erythrina sandwicensis (Leguminosae). The Erythrina gall wasp, probably from Africa originally, invaded Indian Bounding main and Pacific Ocean Islands, and Southeast Asian countries in an unprecedented series of rapid invasions with severe impacts on landscape- and indigenous Eythrina trees. There was concern in Hawaii that the indigenous Erythrina, considered to be a keystone species in dry out lowland woods in that location, would become extinct because of the depredations of the gall wasps (Effigy xiv.ii).

Figure 14.one. Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is a widespread invasive pest of papaya and many indigenous establish species on Pacific islands, merely was successfully suppressed by parasitic wasps introduced as biological control agents.

 Photograph: M. Wright.

Effigy fourteen.ii. Erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), an invasive insect throughout Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean islands, which severely impacted mural ornamental and endemic Erythrina trees, has been finer suppressed through the introduction of an African parasitic wasp (Eurytoma erythrinae, Eurytomidae).

 Photograph: Grand. Tremblay.

Invasive insects that get agronomical pests outcome in estimated economic losses of United states$1.3 trillion worldwide annually (Henneberry, 2007). Many insecticide applications are used in efforts to manage invasive insect pests. Seeking to ameliorate the sustainability of pest direction efforts, and environmental and health bug accept driven the adoption of integrated pest management (IPM), including the use of biological control of pest species, in an attempt to reduce dependence on insecticides. Other IPM options include the use of physical control of insects, and cultural practices that may be applied to make environments less bonny or susceptible to pests. Concrete pest management options include alternatives such as mass trapping of pests, and the use of barriers to exclude pests from crops. While physical insect control measures may be constructive, they require sustained upkeep to remain effective. Cultural control options, including the utilise of tolerant or resistant varieties of crops, mixed cropping systems and planting schedules to accept advantage of differential ingather susceptibility at different stages and different environmental conditions, can also contribute significantly to the integrated direction of insect pests. Cultural management options require considerable planning for constructive implementation, and may increase labour costs associated with crop production.

Biological control offers a self-sustaining solution for the suppression of invasive insect pests. Classical biological control (CBC; see below for details), i.e. the introduction of natural enemies of pests from the identify of origin of the pest, followed by successful establishment, is a completely sustainable ways of achieving pest suppression. Approximately 20% of all biological control projects worldwide are considered to provide consummate pest suppression. In that location are other forms of biological control that offering diverse levels of sustainability, such as augmentative biological control – the repeated introduction or release of natural enemies into a cropping system – where classical biological control may be unfeasible attributable to poor establishment of introduced natural enemies, and other factors such every bit population density too low to finer suppress the pest population. Conservation biological command, where indigenous or naturalized natural enemies of pests are conserved within the borders of crop fields, is another alternative approach to implementing biological control in crops. Carefully researched and applied CBC of insect pests is among the almost ecologically condom and sustainable practices for the direction of invasive insects.

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